Excavations at the Site of the Hellenistic Roman Theatre of Nea Paphos in Cyprus, 2007-2008 |
by Dr Craig Barker.
First published: The AAIA Bulletin, 2007-8, Vol 5. 40-47. |
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The University of Sydney has been excavating in Paphos in Cyprus under the auspices of the Department of Antiquities of Cyprus since 1995 (ref. 1) The project was inaugurated by Emeritus Professor Richard Green, and was designed to excavate and study the area of the Hellenistic-Roman theatre and the surrounding area of the north eastern quarter of the ancient city of Nea Paphos. With the clearance of the remains of the theatre nearly finished (fig. 1), the project is currently focused on the completion of a major academic excavation report and architectural description under the direction of Professor Green. A smaller scale excavation continues at the site, under the co-leadership of the author and Dr Smadar Gabrieli, aimed at exploring the relationship between the theatre and the ancient city. The Australian Archaeological Institute at Athens is now a major sponsor of these excavations. Information on the first decade of excavation at the site is recounted elsewhere, including in the 2002 AAIA Newsletter (ref. 2).
The ancient city of Nea Paphos (today known as Kato Paphos) was founded, according to tradition, in the late 4th century BC by a local Cypriot king, named Nikokles (ref. 3). It was an area of Cyprus long associated with the worship of Aphrodite, but in the rapidly changing world of the eastern Mediterranean in the years following the conquests of Alexander the Great, the harbour of the new settlement played a larger role in the developing Hellenistic koine. When the Ptolemies seized Cyprus, Nea Paphos was made capital of the island and remained so for centuries. The city developed as a major trading emporium throughout the Hellenistic period and acted as a major port on the maritime routes to Alexandria, as evidenced by the large number of imported ceramics found across the city and the shipwrecks scattered along the coast. Alexandrian cultural and architectural influence on Cyprus is seen in locations such as the necropolis known as the 'Tombs of the Kings' at Paphos, which directly imitates Alexandrian funeral architecture. Paphos continued to act as an important city well into the Roman domination of the island; later Roman pictorial mosaics from excavated domestic structures are amongst the best preserved in the eastern Mediterranean. Today the importance of the archaeology of Nea Paphos is recognised with an UNESCO World Heritage listing which includes the site of the ancient theatre. Over the years, the Australian mission has excavated the majority of the surviving features of the ancient theatre including the cavea (semicircular seating area), the orchestra, the traces of foundations for stage buildings, and the eastern and western parodoi ( entranceways onto the orchestra) (fig. 2). The theatre is cut into the southern side of Fabrika hill, facing over the harbour ofPaphos, and measures over 90 metres in diameter. At its maximum capacity the cavea appears to have been able to hold approximately 8000 spectators. Of architectural interest is the fact that the slope ofFabrika hill was not naturally large enough to accommodate the cavea, so seating was carved from the bedrock where it was naturally available, and on the western and eastern flanks where the bedrock did not exist, a slope was created by using earthen embankments held into place by massive retaining walls and the analemmata (ref 4.) Stone seats laid across the embankments to create the semi-circle have subsequently been robbed away, but a series of aerial photographs taken from a photography balloon in 2006 demonstrate the size of the cavea. It was divided into six equal segments created by seven radial stairways, with the outer two running along the side support walls and the middle stairway running up the centre line (fig. 3). Despite considerable damage to the site following the abandonment of the theatre in the late 4th century AD-much of the stone work was stripped and removed, and alterations to the bedrock were sustained during quarrying activity-it was possible to reconstruct the form of the seating with some accuracy. Each seat had a rise of about 36 em, with a curved front edge, allowing the spectators to draw back their feet. There seems to have been an extension to the seating in the late 1st century BC and again in the mid 2nd century AD, doubtless reflecting the growth of the city itself. As is typical for theatres across the Mediterranean world, most of the earlier architecture was obliterated by later construction on the site. This is certainly the case with the Nea Paphos theatre, where Roman works eliminated most traces of the earlier Hellenistic structure. Despite this, and a number of chronological difficulties, the team has been able to identify a number of distinctive architectural phases across the six and a half centuries the site was used as a performance space (ref. 5) 1. Construction Initial construction of the theatre probably took place in the late 4th or early 3rd century BC, soon after the establishment of the settlement of Nea Paphos. This is a clear sign of the significant role of theatre in the eastern Mediterranean in the early Hellenistic period, demonstrating its importance as a unifying element in the newly created Greek eastern world. Limited archaeological material survives for this period, but epigraphic evidence in the form of lettering carved into some of the seats of the upper cavea provides a tantalising glimpse into this earliest phase of the theatre. 2. Refurbishment A refurbishment took place in the mid 2nd century BC. A series of architectural elements from a more permanent stage building of the phase have been recovered which reflect Alexandrian influence (ref. 6). As mentioned earlier, the influence of Alexandrian architecture across Paphos is well-noted in this period. (ref. 7) Also probably constructed around this time was the 'Charonian' tunnel running from the stage building under the orchestra along its central line. Measuring 180 x 72 em in section, it would have allowed the movement of performers from the stage to the furthest part of the orchestra for surprise appearances (fig. 4). 3. Post-earthquake restoration An earthquake is known to have struck Paphos in 15 BC. By this point Cyprus had been fully incorporated into the Roman Empire and, subsequently, there is evidence of Augustus' personal interest in the restoration of the Paphos theatre (ref. 8). There is little archaeological evidence of this phase, although the restoration and realignment of the western analemma may have taken place in conjunction with the repairs made to the building after damaged incurred by the earthquake (ref. 9). 4. Antonine reconstruction The most radical and significant of the later reconstructions took place in the middle of the 2nd century AD, under the Antonine emperors. It is the phase of which we can say the most about the Nea Paphos theatre. In a broader context, this is an important period in the development of the Roman theatre (ref. 10). For the theatre at Nea Paphos it meant considerable architectural changes consistent with the broader changes across the empire, especially to the stage building. The major changes were commemorated on a marble inscription, placed on the architrave of the stage building, which would have stretched to over 12m. Two substantial fragments survive; one found in the early 20th century, the other by the University of Sydney team in 2002 (ref. 11; figs. 5-6). The inscription thanks the emperors Antoninus Pius and Marcus Aurelius and mention·s a number of features restored at this time, including a major remodelling of the stage building. The stage building was clad with a marble veneer (the marble architectural pieces were imported from all over the Mediterranean, giving some indication of Roman commercial trade and the ability to transportbuilding materials on a large scale over long distances). The stage building was colonnaded with Corinthian capitals constructed from Prokonnesian marble imported from the entrance of the Black Sea. A series of spiral-fluted columns of a blue-grey marble known as bigio antico were possibly used as a decorative element on the upper storey (fig. 7). Excavation has revealed many architectural elements from this phase, including niches for the display of statues such as imperial portraiture of the emporors. Fragmentary sculptural elements recovered from the site give an idea of the quality of decorative elements of this period. The filling-in of the tunnel passageway appears to have occurred around this time also. The parodoi of the theatre were remodelled - they were vaulted, bringing them in line with standard contemporary Roman architectural styles - and the passages were given fresco decorations, fragments of which still survive on the wall of the western parodos (ref. 12; fig. 8). Directly behind the foundations of the front of the stage building was laid a line of water-pipes with holes cut into the top. In some cases the remains of lead pipes are set into them (fig. 9). It is thought that they were designed to feed sprinklers or water fountains that sprayed water from the front of the stage onto the multi-coloured pavement laid out on top of the orchestra area. 5. Final refurbishment The final major alteration occurred sometime in the middle of the 3rd century AD. This phase saw the conversion of the orchestra into an area used for animal combats, gladiatorial contests and water spectacles, all of which were hugely popular across the eastern Mediterranean at the time. The marble pavement of the orchestra was removed and resurfaced with a water-proof cement. Around the orchestra a barrier wall was built, approximately 1.1 m high, using recycled architectural materials. The entries from the side were partially blocked off. Paphos has an unexcavated amphitheatre just to the north-east of the harbour which presumably was also constructed around the same time. These architectural changes reflect a broader contextual change. The theatre started as a standard theatre emphasising its links with Alexandria in the Ptolemaic era to one that, under the Antonines, reflected the glory of centralised Roman control. By the 3rd century the concerns were more localised across the east, and the more non-intellectual forms of entertainment were reflective of wider economic, cultural and political changes. 6. Destruction and abandonment The destruction and the abandonment of the theatre site took place in the late 4th century AD when a series of earthquakes devastated the southern coast of Cyprus, including the towns of Nea Paphos and Kourion. Paphos by this stage had become a significant seat of Christianity . The early church took a very negative view on performance, with many Christian writers condemning the theatre as a source of moral corruption. It is significant that there appears to be no attempt to rebuild the theatre following this final earthquake; indeed on the contrary there is evidence that much of the architectural remains of the theatre were carried off for the construction of the large Chrysopolitissa Basilica (Ayia Kyriaki) 300 m away. The remains of re-used marble blocks from architraves, sheets of veneer of marble from the stage building and columns and a series of Corinthian capitals all taken from the theatre can be found incorporated into the basilica. The appropriation of the more expensive material from the destroyed theatre lead eventually to a more wholesale exploitation of the site for building stone. Eventually most of the seats were ripped out. The seats that rested on the earthen embankments would have been easy to move, but eventually workmen came to carve out blocks from the bedrock-cut central area as well. Refuse deposits from this demolition and quarrying phase have been identified, as has evidence for the breaking up of marble pieces not suitable for architectural reuse to be used in lime kilns. Much of this quarrying work seems to have taken place in the 5th century AD, but there are signs of continued activity throughout the 6th and 7th centuries too (ref. 13). Fragments of an Egyptian Coptic style plate of the 6th century were found in 2001 and 2008, enabling a near complete reconstruction (fig. 10). The occasional Arab coin reminds us of the Arab raids on Cyprus through the late 7th century, after which the area of the theatre is seemingly abandoned for a number of centuries as the remaining settlement around Paphos harbour contracts to the edge of the water. The University of Sydney team is also exploring a further phase of the site, unconneted to the theatre: a complex of Medieval buildings of the 12th and 13th centuries constructed above the remains of the orchestra and stage area (ref. 14). The buildings are industrial, or semi-industrial, in character and are reflective of the economic revival of Paphos at the time of the Crusades. There is evidence for metal-working, for the manufacture of glass and for the large scale commercial manufacture of glazed decorated pottery, the so-called sgraffito ware which was traded widely throughout the eastern Mediterranean. Although unexpected, the Medieval phase of the site is proving to be one of considerable importance and the study continues. Now that an understanding of the chronology and development of the site has been established, the project has turned its attention to the completion of a report on the first 12 years of excavations at the site. Particular emphasis is being placed on a detailed description of the architectural developments of each phase of the theatre, especially the earlier Hellenistic levels. Since 2007, excavation at the site has been mainly focussed on the area to the south east of the theatre. Two seasons have taken place, one in July of 2007 and the other in October of 2008, both with smaller teams concentrated on the area of the eastern parodos (ref. 15; fig. 11). The smaller scale of the excavations has also allowed for greater reflection on the position of the theatre within the urban landscape of ancient Nea Paphos. It has enabled us to consider issues including the flow of traffic into and out of the theatre complex; the relationship of the theatre to the nearby ancient city walls and North East city gate; and the connection of nearby structures to the theatre. Test trenches opened in the mid-1990s by the team had already revealed the presence of a street running east-west directly south of the theatre. The road was in alignment with the section of the city's grid plan that had previously been excavated in the south west of Nea Paphos. 16 Interestingly, the alignment of the theatre and of the road are not the same, so the relationship between the two and the role the road played in traffic flow into the theatre had never been fully understood. Additionally, much of the eastern parodos was covered by modem structures and a modem road, obstructing excavation in the area. Although far more heavily damaged and quarried-out than the architectural remains of the western side of the theatre, the inability for the team to investigate the symmetry of the theatre had proved frustrating. The closure of the road and the demolition of the modem buildings prior to the 2007 season provided the perfect opportunity to explore this section of the site, and to attempt to understand the relationship of the theatre to the urbanscape of the city's north eastern quarters. Although it is early days, the work has revealed some startling information. The eastern parodos parallels in many ways its better preserved western counterpart, but diverges in certain aspects. Both show evidence of a southward facing side entrance onto the parodos (fig. 12). However there is little evidence in the eastern parodos of the painted designs of the Antonine makeover seen in the west section of the theatre, nor of the faux marble patterned floor that is visible in the innermost section of the western parodos. Instead there is a plain black and white geometric mosaic. Of perhaps the greatest interest in this area is the excavation of a series of at least seven medieval or post-medieval plaster-lined pits of various sizes, with interconnecting water channels, indicative of tanning activity or other industrial production (fig. 13). Excavations also revealed the foundation layers for the Antonine extensions to the parodos on the south. Photographs indicate the substantial size of this structure, which would have not only provided the support for the ceremonial entranceway but also for new seating high above built as the capacity for the theatre was expanded yet again. While all of the stone above ground level has been robbed away, one is still struck by the sheer scale of the An to nine modifications (fig. 14), and even the tanning pits and modern service trenches cutting through the stonework do not take away from the impressive nature of the architectural venture. Of interest to the south of the Antonine foundations was the discovery of a substantial masonry wall running east-west, parallel to the known road surface (fig. 15). The wall is a metre thick, and constructed of large, even blocks. In 2007 the team cleared it for a length of 17 m. Fascinatingly, the Antonine foundations, which were aligned with the theatre and not the road, run right up to the edge of this wall, abutting it, and then bend to fit around the wall. It is obvious the wall is part of a structure that was significant, and one that predated the Roman expansion of the theatre (fig. 16). The team initially speculated that we had found a long, narrow stoa backing onto the site of the theatre and facing onto the road, so in the 2008 season two 5 x 5 m trenches were planned at either side of the exposed length of the wall. The easternmost of the trenches revealed the continuation of the wall while the western trench uncovered the end of the building. Unexpectedly, the southern side of the structure facing onto the road was walled, meaning that it could not have been a stoa. At the bottom of both trenches, excavators uncovered a plain-brown carpet mosaic covering the entire floor. The structure remains mysterious and requires additional investigation, especially on the eastern flank and in the central area, before its function and chronology can be understood. It is however an exciting project: both trenches revealed the entire structure to be filled with architectural remains from the theatre, including six Corinthian capitals from the Antonine stage building (fig. 17), more fragments of the spiral-fluted columns, architraves, statue niches and dumped quarried seats and dignitaries' chairs from the cavea. Regardless of the original purpose of the structure, it was clearly being used in the late 4th and 5th centuries as a storage area for architectural elements stripped from the theatre, ready for transportation to the Chrystopolitissa basilica or elsewhere in the city. The nature of this structure itself may still be problematic, but in the 2008 season the team were able to recover more architectural elements from the theatre than in most of the prior seasons combined. Further investigation in the area and the eventual exposure of the entire road surface to the south of the theatre will give us a better indication of how the city looked in antiquity, and of how the audience may have approached the theatre for performances. It will be an exciting phase of the project, when we can step back from the theatre and think about its architectural development in a broader urban context, and one in which the Paphos team looks forward to a close relationship with the Australian Archaeological Institute at Athens. REFERENCES
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Figure 1: The excavated theatre of Nea Paphos, July 2007
(photograph by Bob Miller).
Figure 2: Plan of excavations of the theatre site (illustration by Geoff Stennett).
Figure 3: The cavea from above, image taken from an aerial balloon camera
(photograph by Bob Miller).
Figure 4: inside the Hellenistic tunnel running underneath the stage and orchestra (photograph by Geoff Stennett).
Figure 5. Fragment of the Antonine inscription from Paphos theatre
Figure 6. Fragment of the Antonine inscription from Paphos theatre.
Figure 7: Spiral fluted column fragment, probably from upper storey of Antonine phase theatre (photograph by Bob Miller).
Figure 8: Fragment of a fresco from the western parados.
Figure 9: Lead pipe from the front of the stage.
Figure 10: Reconstructed Coptic style plate of the 6th century AD.
Figure 11: Plan of eastern parodos area showing the location of 2007 and 2008 trenches (illustration by Geoff Stennett).
Figure 12: A view of the eastern parodos area facing south from the thaetre cavea. The southern entrance to the parodos is marked by an arrow (photograph by Geoff Stennett).
Figure 13: Detail of two plaster-lined tanning pits excavated in 2007 (photograph by Kerrie Grant).
Figure 14: View of the surviving foundations of the Antonine extensions to the eastern parodos in the foreground, as excavations continue to the south (photograph by Geoff Stennett).
Figure 15: The substantial masonry wall revealed in 2007. This photograph, facing west, shows how the building was on a different alignment to the theatre. The Antonine modifications of the theatre's eastern parodos, visible at the right of the image, have been truncated to fit around the building (photograph by Mel Melnyczek).
Figure 16: The western-most section of the long narrow building to the south during excavations in 2008, facing west (photograph by Mel Melnyczek).
Figure 17: Excavation of a Corinthian capital from the Antonine stage building.
(photograph by Geoff Stennett).
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